The Developmental Stages of
Erik Erikson
By Arlene
F. Harder, MA, MFT
"It is human to have a long
childhood; it is civilized to have an even longer childhood.
Long childhood makes a technical and mental virtuoso out
of man, but it also leaves a life-long residue of emotional
immaturity in him."
— Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994)
Our personality
traits come in opposites. We think of ourselves as optimistic
or pessimistic, independent or dependent, emotional or unemotional,
adventurous or cautious, leader or follower, aggressive or
passive. Many of these are inborn temperament traits, but
other characteristics, such as feeling either competent or
inferior, appear to be learned, based on the challenges and
support we receive in growing up.
The man who did a great deal to explore
this concept is Erik Erikson. Although he was influenced
by Freud, he believed that the ego exists from birth and
that behavior is not totally defensive. Based in part on
his study of Sioux Indians on a reservation, Erikson became
aware of the massive influence of culture on behavior and
placed more emphasis on the external world, such as depression
and wars. He felt the course of development is determined
by the interaction of the body (genetic biological programming),
mind (psychological), and cultural (ethos) influences.
He organized life into eight stages that
extend from birth to death (many developmental theories only
cover childhood). Since adulthood covers a span of many years,
Erikson divided the stages of adulthood into the experiences
of young adults, middle aged adults and older adults. While
the actual ages may vary considerably from one stage to another,
the ages seem to be appropriate for the majority of people.
Erikson's basic philosophy might be said
to rest on two major themes: (1) the world gets bigger as
we go along and (2) failure is cumulative. While the first
point is fairly obvious, we might take exception to the last.
True, in many cases an individual who has to deal with horrendous
circumstances as a child may be unable to negotiate later
stages as easily as someone who didn't have as many challenges
early on. For example, we know that orphans who weren't held
or stroked as infants have an extremely hard time connecting
with others when they become adults and have even died from
lack of human contact.
However, there's always the chance that
somewhere along the way the strength of the human spirit
can be ignited and deficits overcome. Therefore, to give
you an idea of another developmental concept, be sure to
see Stages
of Growth for Children and Adults, based on Pamela Levine's
work. She saw development as a spiraling cycle rather than
as stages through which we pass, never to visit again.
As you read through the following eight
stages with their sets of opposites, notice which strengths
you identify with most and those you need to work on some
more.
1. Infancy:
Birth to 18 Months
Ego Development
Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust
Basic strength:
Drive and Hope
Erikson also referred to infancy as the
Oral Sensory Stage (as anyone might who watches a baby put
everything in her mouth) where the major emphasis is on the
mother's positive and loving care for the child, with a big
emphasis on visual contact and touch. If we pass successfully
through this period of life, we will learn to trust that
life is basically okay and have basic confidence in the future.
If we fail to experience trust and are constantly frustrated
because our needs are not met, we may end up with a deep-seated
feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world
in general.
Incidentally, many studies of suicides
and suicide attempts point to the importance of the early
years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy
and that every individual has a right to be here.
Not surprisingly, the most significant
relationship is with the maternal parent, or whoever is our
most significant and constant caregiver.
2. Early Childhood:
18 Months to 3 Years
Ego Development
Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame
Basic Strengths:
Self-control, Courage, and Will
During this stage we learn to master skills
for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk, talk and feed
ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well
as the much appreciated toilet training. Here we have the
opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as we
gain more control over our bodies and acquire new skills,
learning right from wrong. And one of our skills during the "Terrible
Two's" is our ability to use the powerful word "NO!" It
may be pain for parents, but it develops important skills
of the will.
It is also during this stage, however,
that we can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process
of toilet training or in learning other important skills,
we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities
and suffer low self-esteem as a result.
The most significant relationships are
with parents.
3. Play Age:
3 to 5 Years
Ego Development
Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt
Basic Strength:
Purpose
During this period we experience a desire
to copy the adults around us and take initiative in
creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie's
and Ken's, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles
in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for
what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to
use that wonderful word for exploring the world—"WHY?"
While Erikson was influenced by Freud,
he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial
features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless,
he said that at this stage we usually become involved in
the classic "Oedipal struggle" and resolve this
struggle through "social role identification." If
we're frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily
experience guilt.
The most significant relationship is with
the basic family.
4. School Age:
6 to 12 Years
Ego Development
Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority
Basic Strengths:
Method and Competence
During this stage, often called the Latency,
we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous
new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry.
This is also a very social stage of development and if we
experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among
our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence
and self-esteem.
As the world expands a bit, our most significant
relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents
are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although
they are still important.
5. Adolescence:
12 to 18 Years
Ego Development
Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Strengths:
Devotion and Fidelity
Up to this stage, according to Erikson,
development mostly depends upon what is done to us.
From here on out, development depends primarily upon what
we do. And while adolescence is a stage at which we are
neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting
more complex as we attempt to find our own identity,
struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral
issues.
Our task is to discover who we are as
individuals separate from our family of origin and as members
of a wider society. Unfortunately for those around us, in
this process many of us go into a period of withdrawing from
responsibilities, which Erikson called a "moratorium." And
if we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will
experience role confusion and upheaval.
A significant task for us is to establish
a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to think
in terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than
reality, which is not. The problem is that we don't have
much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for
experience. However, we can also develop strong devotion
to friends and causes.
It is no surprise that our most significant
relationships are with peer groups.
6. Young adulthood:
18 to 35
Ego Development
Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation
Basic Strengths:
Affiliation and Love
In the initial stage of being an adult
we seek one or more companions and love. As we try to find
mutually satisfying relationships, primarily through marriage
and friends, we generally also begin to start a family, though
this age has been pushed back for many couples who today
don't start their families until their late thirties. If
negotiating this stage is successful, we can experience intimacy on
a deep level.
If we're not successful, isolation and
distance from others may occur. And when we don't find it
easy to create satisfying relationships, our world can begin
to shrink as, in defense, we can feel superior to others.
Our significant relationships are with
marital partners and friends.
7. Middle Adulthood:
35 to 55 or 65
Ego Development
Outcome: Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation
Basic Strengths:
Production and Care
Now work is most crucial. Erikson observed
that middle-age is when we tend to be occupied with creative
and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family.
Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to "be
in charge," the role we've longer envied.
The significant task is to perpetuate
culture and transmit values of the culture through the family
(taming the kids) and working to establish a stable environment.
Strength comes through care of others and production of something
that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson
calls generativity, so when we're in this stage we
often fear inactivity and meaninglessness.
As our children leave home, or our relationships
or goals change, we may be faced with major life changes—the
mid-life crisis—and struggle with finding new meanings
and purposes. If we don't get through this stage successfully,
we can become self-absorbed and stagnate.
Significant relationships are within the
workplace, the community and the family.
8. Late Adulthood:
55 or 65 to Death
Ego Development
Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair
Basic Strengths:
Wisdom
Erikson felt that much of life is preparing
for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage is recovering
from it. Perhaps that is because as older adults we can often
look back on our lives with happiness and are content, feeling
fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we've
made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls integrity.
Our strengt h comes from a wisdom that the world is very
large and we now have a detached concern for the whole of
life, accepting death as the completion of life.
On the other hand, some adults may reach
this stage and despair at their experiences and perceived
failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a
purpose to their lives, wondering "Was the trip worth
it?" Alternatively, they may feel they have all the
answers (not unlike going back to adolescence) and end with
a strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct.
The significant relationship is with all
of mankind—"my-kind."
© Copyright 2002, Revised 2009, Arlene
F. Harder, MA, MFT |
